Social Sciences and Epidemics
This collection collates reports from the ‘Social Science in Epidemics’ series. In this series different aspects of past disease outbreaks are reviewed in order to identify social science ‘entry points’ for emergency interventions and preparedness activities. This evidence will come together to determine tangible ways to better address the social, political and economic dynamics of epidemics; and to ensure that interventions build on the social and cultural resources of the communities they aim to support.
Case Studies
Strengthening Health Information Surveillance: Implementing Community-Based Surveillance in Sudan
This case study explores the 2018–22 implementation of a national community-based surveillance (CBS) programme in Sudan. The programme was designed to meet critical needs of the existing health surveillance system. It aimed to empower communities to detect and contain public…
Tools
Citizen Ethnography in Outbreak Response: Guidance for Establishing Networks of Researchers
This guidance outlines the steps for designing and implementing ethnographic research which is led by citizens. It explains what citizen ethnography is and then sets out what should be considered throughout the process of working with networks of citizen researchers,…
![April 15, 2019. A woman puts drops of disinfectant into water to prevent cholera at a community water point. Dondo, Mozambique. Picture: UNICEF/James Oatway
At least 1.6 million children need urgent assistance – in healthcare, nutrition, protection, education, water and sanitation – one month after Cyclone Idai devastated parts of Mozambique, Malawi and Zimbabwe, UNICEF said today. Any prolonged interruption in access to essential services could lead to disease outbreaks and spikes in malnutrition, to which children are especially vulnerable.
The needs in Mozambique remain massive, with 1 million children in need of assistance, followed by more than 443,000 in Malawi and 130,000 in Zimbabwe.
Mozambique has already seen cases of cholera and malaria surge to 4,600 and 7,500 respectively since the cyclone hit.
UNICEF is particularly worried about access to services for the more 130,000 children who remain displaced following the cyclone, most of whom are in Mozambique and Malawi. More than 200,000 homes were destroyed by the storm in Mozambique alone. Photo credit: © UNICEF/Oatway](https://www.socialscienceinaction.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/cholera3-400x200.jpg)
Case Studies
Enhancing Community Engagement Through Data Collection: Controlling the Cholera Epidemic in Mozambique
Case study focusing on post-cyclone cholera response activities
![On 10 August 2018, an Ebola vaccination team member (left) prepares to administer the Ebola vaccine in Beni, North Kivu, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).
Following the 1 August 2018 announcement by the Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) of a new Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak in North Kivu, UNICEF has mobilized its teams to help contain the spread of the disease and protect children. The impact of an outbreak on children can be far reaching. It’s known from earlier outbreaks in the DRC as well as in West Africa that children can be affected in various ways. Children can themselves be infected by the disease, but the impact goes beyond; it impacts their families and communities as children can lose their parents, care-givers and teachers. Access to basic services such as health care and education can become severely compromised. Also, children who are infected or whose relatives are, face stigmatization and social exclusion.
The Congolese Government has activated its response plan and called its partners, including UNICEF, to participate in the response. UNICEF has deployed a team to Beni for the response, including health specialists, communication specialists and a water, sanitation and hygiene specialist from the Ebola-response team in the Province of Equateur. Health, water, sanitation and hygiene and communication supplies have been sent to the affected areas including 300 laser thermometers to monitor the health conditions of people in the affected region and 2,000 kg of chlorine to treat water to help contain the spread of the disease. As at 14 August 2018, UNICEF has installed 35 chlorination points, as well as handwashing units in 45 public places and in health facilities in the affected areas of Beni and Mangina in North Kivu. UNICEF has supported the distribution of prevention posters and leaflets, and worked with communities, in public places and with local radio stations to promote safe hygiene and sanitation UNICEF/Naftalin](https://www.socialscienceinaction.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/UN0228950-400x200.jpg)
Tools
Social Science Research for Vaccine Deployment in Epidemic Outbreaks
Why is social science vital for effective vaccine trials?
![On 7 May, a woman looks at an illustration in a flip book held by a social mobilizer, in a community in Forécariah Prefecture. UNICEF-supported social mobilizers are conducting education awareness session on Ebola virus disease (EVD) and providing communities in the prefecture with information on key behaviours to protect themselves against the disease. UNICEF and partners are also conducting contact tracing to find, isolate and treat individuals who have been in close contact with persons infected with Ebola a critical part of the response to stop the viruss spread. A total of 18 confirmed cases of EVD 9 each in Guinea and Sierra Leone were reported in the week leading up to 3 May. All 9 new cases in Guinea were reported from Forécariah Prefecture.
On 9 May 2015, Guinea remains among countries in West Africa affected by the worst outbreak of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in history. The virus, which has killed more than 9,900 people since January 2014 and has taken a toll on almost every aspect of the lives of over 9 million children living in Ebola-affected areas. Thousands of children have contracted or have been killed by the disease, and more than 16,000 of them have lost one or both parents or their primary caregiver. The vast majority of these orphans are now being cared for by their communities. EVD has also disrupted essential services that were already fragile before the crisis, including critical health care and education. As of 3 May in Guinea, 3,167 people in the country have been confirmed with EVD and 1,971 people have been killed by the virus. Although only nine Ebola cases were reported in the country in the week leading up to 3 May the lowest weekly total this year EVD transmission persists. UNICEF remains at the forefront of efforts to respond to and help curtail the outbreak, and is the lead United Nations agency for social mobilization in the Ebola response. Working with the Government, communities and other partners, UNI UNICEF/La Rose](https://www.socialscienceinaction.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/UNI184965_Med-Res-400x200.jpg)
Tools
Rapid Appraisal of Key Health-Seeking Behaviours in Epidemics
How to identify health-seeking behaviours
![On 10 April 2020, Turusew Getahun, a social worker, works to identify, profile and register unaccompanied children and youths at the Civil Service University in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The centre is being used to quarantine returnees to the country, amidst concerns about the spread of COVID-19. Many of the returnees had sought work in Saudi Arabia, were victims of human trafficking along the way, and were subject to captivity and deportation upon reaching Saudi Arabia.
All unaccompanied minors are classified as vulnerable migrants, which is the social workers, in addition to profiling and registering them, identify their needs, look for signs of abuse requiring follow-up services, and obtain information about their families. The latter information is important for initiating a detailed assessment, family tracing, and reunification. In cases where a reunification with the family is not possible, alternative care arrangements are explored in cooperation with social workers or community service workers in their places of origin. Turusew says she looks forward to reuniting the children with their families when the quarantine is over. In the meantime, she wants them to be protected from COVID-19 during their quarantine. “Although information [about COVID-19] is being given to all returnees, children require specific support and child-focused messaging to help them understand how to protect themselves from the virus,” she says.
As of 14 April 2020, Ethiopia has reported 82 confirmed cases of COVID-19 in the country, with 3 deaths. In recent weeks the country has seen a surge of returnees to the country, due to the global situation. All returnees are now being placed in a mandatory 14-day quarantine. The sudden surge in returnees is straining local capacities, especially the health system. Some 2,780 returnees have been registered and quarantined at various centers the government has set up in Addis Ababa. An additional 300 returnees per day are expected in the comi UNICEF/Tesfaye](https://www.socialscienceinaction.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/UNI320537_Nahom-tesfaye-400x200.jpg)
Tools
Rapid Anthropological Assessments in the Field
Exploring data collection methods and question modules
![On 5 November, in the initial phases of U-Report's launch in Liberia, two adolescent girls who have been raising awareness of the technology among other youths record on paper the mobile numbers of new users, in the West Point neighbourhood of Monrovia, the capital. They used the traditional route of gathering new user data during a system outage. Part of the rollout process included identifying lingering glitches in the system. The adolescents are UNICEF-supported social mobilizers from the group Adolescents Leading an Intensive Fight against Ebola (A-LIFE); they underwent UNICEF training on U-Report and on how to use the technology to track data on EVD as well as on sexual health and teen pregnancy.
In November 2014, Liberia remains one of three countries in West Africa experiencing widespread and intense transmission of Ebola virus disease (EVD). UNICEF continues to support social mobilization efforts to raise awareness of the disease, its symptoms and how to prevent its spread all of which are critical to curtailing the unprecedented outbreak. U-Report, a text-based communication platform previously developed by UNICEF, was customized and deployed for use within Liberias mobilization efforts. Using Short Message Service (SMS), U-Report allows individual subscribers to ask questions about issues, to get real-time answers and to share information with other users U-reporters across the country. By giving people a new and effective platform for communication, it is intended to strengthen community-led development, citizen engagement and behavioural change. [Note, this story captions applies to all images below.] UNICEF/Jallonzo](https://www.socialscienceinaction.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/UNI174451_Med-Res-400x200.jpg)
Tools
Rapid Remote Context Analysis Tool (RR-CAT) in Epidemics
Methodologies for use during remote context analysis
![On 10 August 2018, children read an Ebola-awareness poster in North Kivu, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).
Following the 1 August 2018 announcement by the Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) of a new Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak in North Kivu, UNICEF has mobilized its teams to help contain the spread of the disease and protect children. The impact of an outbreak on children can be far reaching. It’s known from earlier outbreaks in the DRC as well as in West Africa that children can be affected in various ways. Children can themselves be infected by the disease, but the impact goes beyond; it impacts their families and communities as children can lose their parents, care-givers and teachers. Access to basic services such as health care and education can become severely compromised. Also, children who are infected or whose relatives are, face stigmatization and social exclusion.
The Congolese Government has activated its response plan and called its partners, including UNICEF, to participate in the response. UNICEF has deployed a team to Beni for the response, including health specialists, communication specialists and a water, sanitation and hygiene specialist from the Ebola-response team in the Province of Equateur. Health, water, sanitation and hygiene and communication supplies have been sent to the affected areas including 300 laser thermometers to monitor the health conditions of people in the affected region and 2,000 kg of chlorine to treat water to help contain the spread of the disease. As at 14 August 2018, UNICEF has installed 35 chlorination points, as well as handwashing units in 45 public places and in health facilities in the affected areas of Beni and Mangina in North Kivu. UNICEF has supported the distribution of prevention posters and leaflets, and worked with communities, in public places and with local radio stations to promote safe hygiene and sanitation practices that help contain the spread of the UNICEF/Naftalin](https://www.socialscienceinaction.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/UN0228959-400x200.jpg)
Case Studies
Real-Time Ebola Community Feedback Mechanism
Case study examining misinformation and mistrust in the Ebola epidemic
![Margaret Kadogo is a beneficiary of the cash trial. She is also a displaced person, fleeing the Rift Valley during the 2008 post-election violence. EU/ECHO/Martin Karimi | CC BY-NC-ND 2.0](https://www.socialscienceinaction.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/rift-valley-fever-400x200.jpg)
Case Studies
Understanding Sociocultural Dynamics to Enhance Control of Rift Valley Fever (RVF) Epidemics in Kenya
Case study addressing the issue of food shortage and economic losses
![On 28 August in Liberia, workers wearing head-to-toe personal protective equipment remove a body from a holding facility in the West Point neighbourhood of Monrovia, the capital. The neighbourhood was under quarantine from 20 to 30 August to help stop the spread of EVD.
The worst outbreak of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in history continues to ravage communities in West Africa. UNICEF estimates that 8.5 million children and young people under the age of 20 live in areas affected by EVD in Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia, countries where disease transmission is widespread and intense. Of these, 2.5 million are under the age of 5. Preliminary UNICEF estimates also indicate that at least 3,700 children in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone have lost one or both parents to EVD since the start of the outbreak. Nigeria and Senegal are also affected, having experienced an initial case or cases, or localized transmission. UNICEF remains at the forefront of efforts to respond to and help curtail the outbreak. In Guinea, UNICEF has been distributing bars of soap, bottles of chlorine for handwashing and household water treatment, and flyers with information on EVD; preventative practices have also been shared through a door-to-door campaign supported by UNICEF and partners. In Liberia, UNICEFs partners, in co-ordination with the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), are distributing household protection kits in the hardest-hit areas. The kits contains critical supplies protective gowns, gloves and masks, as well as soap, chlorine and a sprayer, along with instructions on the use and safe disposal of materials that help family caregivers look after Ebola sufferers as safely as possible. From 1921 September in Sierra Leone, UNICEF supported a Government-led campaign to reach every household countrywide with life-saving messages on EVD. On 16 September, UNICEF appealed for over US$200 million to cont UNICEF/Kesner](https://www.socialscienceinaction.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/UNI172230_Med-Res-1-400x200.jpg)
Case Studies
Balancing Burial Rituals with Public Health Demands During the 2014 Guinean Ebola Epidemic
Case study addressing resistance to Ebola response measures
![On 3 September in Liberia, men dressed in head-to-toe personal protective equipment load bodies into a truck, outside an Ebola treatment centre in Monrovia, the capital.
The worst outbreak of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in history continues to ravage communities in West Africa. UNICEF estimates that 8.5 million children and young people under the age of 20 live in areas affected by EVD in Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia, countries where disease transmission is widespread and intense. Of these, 2.5 million are under the age of 5. Preliminary UNICEF estimates also indicate that at least 3,700 children in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone have lost one or both parents to EVD since the start of the outbreak. Nigeria and Senegal are also affected, having experienced an initial case or cases, or localized transmission. UNICEF remains at the forefront of efforts to respond to and help curtail the outbreak. In Guinea, UNICEF has been distributing bars of soap, bottles of chlorine for handwashing and household water treatment, and flyers with information on EVD; preventative practices have also been shared through a door-to-door campaign supported by UNICEF and partners. In Liberia, UNICEFs partners, in co-ordination with the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), are distributing household protection kits in the hardest-hit areas. The kits contains critical supplies protective gowns, gloves and masks, as well as soap, chlorine and a sprayer, along with instructions on the use and safe disposal of materials that help family caregivers look after Ebola sufferers as safely as possible. From 1921 September in Sierra Leone, UNICEF supported a Government-led campaign to reach every household countrywide with life-saving messages on EVD. On 16 September, UNICEF appealed for over US$200 million to continue such responses to the outbreak. A proportion of the funds will also go toward helping neighbouri UNICEF/Kesner](https://www.socialscienceinaction.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/UNI172231_Med-Res-400x200.jpg)
Case Studies
Learning the Lessons of Crisis: Mobilising Knowledge During a Global Health Emergency
Case study addressing issues around knowledge sharing, focusing on the example of Ebola